Web3 framework for Ethereum Swarm dApps. To download to your desktop sign into Chrome and enable sync or send yourself a reminder». (3). Swarm was written in golang and requires the go-ethereum client geth to run. In order to up/download, you need to expose the HTTP api port (here: to. Upload and download files to decentralised storage (Swarm). Send files to other people in a secure and encrypted way. Easily host and manage HTML websites. MAXIFOREX YOUTUBE

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Because of this, nodes will tend to keep chunks which are also outside their responsibility, if they notice those chunks are in high demand. That means that popular chunks will tend to propagate more, which ultimately means that any path to those chunks will tend to be shorter. And shorter path means more speed. That said, there are other factors that might influence the speed of delivery, of course, like geographical distribution and node bandwidths.

There considerations aren't currently part of the consideration in the swarm architecture. However, this approach leads to unpopular chunks of data to disappear from nodes overtime, thus impacting permanence of the system. While the detailed mechanism of race goes beyond the scope of this research, it suffices to know that these raffles: act as spot checks on nodes for nodes presents an opportunity to earn additional income encourage nodes to stay online as they would otherwise miss raffles require nodes to store the right data and properly maintain the stored chunks Finally, in order to reconstruct files, nodes need to be able to understand which chunks belong to which files, and the downloader needs to be able to verify the correctness of the chunks.

In Swarm, every chunk address is unique, implying a unique address-payload association. This uniqueness creates the immutability of the chunk, as only that chunk can contain the data embedded in it. Swarm has two kinds of chunks; a content addressed chunk and a single owner chunk. While these differ in terms of data structure, both use the BMT hash verify chunk integrity and to reconstruct the full file. Ultimately, users can use their Swarm hash also known as bzzhash to signal to the network to retrieve all chunks and recreate the file.

For additional protection against data loss, caused by nodes going offline or being otherwise unable to access data, Swarm applies Cauchy-Reed-Solomon erasure coding to 4 kilobyte sized chunks of the file before they are hashed into the Merkle tree.

This allows the network to retrieve data, even when a portion of the chunks are inaccessible. Finally, Swarm includes a pinning function which allows nodes to save all chunks locally and prevent the chunks from being removed. Nodes track the relative bandwidth consumption with peers they connect with, creating a debts and credits balancing mechanism between any two nodes at any given point in time.

When node A requests data from node B, and node B responds, then node B has a credit surplus, while node A has debt liabilities. This can continue until a certain threshold is reached, after which node B will not accept further requests until node A has repaid liabilities. Figure 3: Swarm Accounting Protocol.

Source: Swarm whitepaper. Cheques are handled on-chain by a smart contract. Nodes must decide for themselves whether to cash a cheque upon receipt, or to wait to reduce transaction costs on the Ethereum network. If the node waits, however, they increase the risk of settlement failure, i. This is where Swarm employs a reputation system: because the smart contract records failed cheque withdrawals, nodes can see publicly which other nodes did not make good on their cheques and can refrain from communicating with that node in the future.

Competitive insurance requires nodes to store every bit of promised, and failure to do so is not only unprofitable, but outright catastrophic to the insurer. While SWAP incentivizes short term data storage, and RACE incentivized long-term data storage of popular files, competitive insurance incentivizes long-term data storage of any files stored on the network no matter their popularity, as well as simultaneously prevent users from spinning up new nodes to sell empty long-term storage promises, only to cash-out and deactivate their node shortly after.

The competitive insurance system works with a deposit system. Nodes that want to sell long-term storage aka promissory storage must have a stake verified and locked-in with an Ethereum-based smart contract at the time of making their promise — essentially a security deposit. If the security deposit has been locked, the node is entitled to make storage promises up to the duration of the locked stakes. If, during the promise period, a node fails to prove ownership of the data they promised to store, they lose their entire security deposit.

If a user or a node finds that content with a promise is inaccessible, they can submit a challenge to a smart contract that handles the verification process. Nodes are compensated for their promises over time. When a user stores data on a node, they pay up-front for the entire storage duration. This amount is locked, and is released in installments to the node as long as they can provide proof of custody of the files. The price for storage is automatically calculated through the client software and smart contracts.

Swarm allows for different levels of data retention: minimal — a few hours long term — a year forever — 10 years The purchase of storage space over time in Swarm is called a postage subscriptions, and they are managed by the postage subscription API, which shows users how much data of a specific subscription has been uploaded and for how long it can be stored at its current price e. This setup is similar to that of IPFS. Tokenomics While the project has been with the Ethereum Foundation since within their Geth team, only in June Swarm launched a public token sale.

Details of the token distribution can be found below: This makes it prohibitively expensive to buy or dump large amounts of tokens at once, thus protecting the utility of the token against speculative actions. Figure 4: Swarm bonding curve explanation on Bzzaar exchange bzz.

Figure 5: Shape of BZZ bonding curve.

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This is the content they currently get the most requests for, because their earnings come from the number of chunks they deliver. Because of this, nodes will tend to keep chunks which are also outside their responsibility, if they notice those chunks are in high demand. That means that popular chunks will tend to propagate more, which ultimately means that any path to those chunks will tend to be shorter. And shorter path means more speed.

That said, there are other factors that might influence the speed of delivery, of course, like geographical distribution and node bandwidths. Source: Swarm Whitepaper This network design ensures that messages intended for nodes that are very far away from each other can always reach their destination, even if the nodes are not directly connected.

Swarm stores data on these nodes as chunks, which represent 4 kilobytes of data with an address that exists in the same address space as node addresses, enabling the calculation of proximity of nodes and chunks. Swarm requires nodes that are in close proximity of a data chunk to store that same chunk locally, thus creating clusters of replicated data within a neighborhood.

Since a chunk is essentially just a segment of a larger file, without the context of what the full file is meant to be, nodes are unable to rebuild the full file. Chunks can be encrypted for additional privacy. Furthermore, to ensure file redundancy and consistent availability when nodes leave or join the network, nodes continuously synchronize chunks with their neighbors. To retrieve a chunk from a neighborhood, a client communicates with a node which is in close proximity to itself requesting the retrieval of the chunk.

Using the chunk address and the Kademlia algorithm, the nodes recursively forward the message through various nodes in varying proximity layers until they reach the neighborhood hosting the file, which then returns the file along the same route. If any node along the way happens to have the chunk in their local storage, it is sent back as a response instead. Nodes are incentivized to cache chunks of data to reduce bandwidth usage of the network.

This is achieved through opportunistic caching, which refers to the caching chunks of distant neighborhoods to receive payment for retrieval of those chunks. Cached data lives in the caching subsystem of a Swarm node. In Swarm, each node has two local subsystems, namely the reserve and the cache. In simple terms, the reserve stores chunks that have postage stamps attached to it.

Postage stamps are purchased through BZZ tokens and indicate the value a user places on storing these files on Swarm. When a file is stored on a node, the postage stamp acts as a sort of rent that decreases over time. Once the value of the stamp reaches a certain threshold, it is moved from the reserve i. The cache stores chunks that are not protected by the reserve, either because the storage stamp value has reduced over time, or because the cached chunk is from a distant node.

Chunks in cache are ranked by their latest retrieval as a means to indicate the popularity of the chunk and whether it is worth to continue storing the chunk. The cache is regularly cleared of unpopular chunks, ensuring that popular content is permeated across the network and easily retrievable, while also maximizing income for nodes: When nodes on the network return a chunk from a retrieval request, the nodes earn BZZ tokens, hence economically incentivizing the holding of as many chunks as possible.

The method of retrieving and transferring files described above increases anonymity in the network, because a node forward request and an initial request initiation are identical in terms of structure. This ambiguity obfuscates the identity of those retrieving files. However, this approach leads to unpopular chunks of data to disappear from nodes overtime, thus impacting permanence of the system.

While the detailed mechanism of race goes beyond the scope of this research, it suffices to know that these raffles: act as spot checks on nodes for nodes presents an opportunity to earn additional income encourage nodes to stay online as they would otherwise miss raffles require nodes to store the right data and properly maintain the stored chunks Finally, in order to reconstruct files, nodes need to be able to understand which chunks belong to which files, and the downloader needs to be able to verify the correctness of the chunks.

In Swarm, every chunk address is unique, implying a unique address-payload association. This uniqueness creates the immutability of the chunk, as only that chunk can contain the data embedded in it. Swarm has two kinds of chunks; a content addressed chunk and a single owner chunk. While these differ in terms of data structure, both use the BMT hash verify chunk integrity and to reconstruct the full file. Ultimately, users can use their Swarm hash also known as bzzhash to signal to the network to retrieve all chunks and recreate the file.

For additional protection against data loss, caused by nodes going offline or being otherwise unable to access data, Swarm applies Cauchy-Reed-Solomon erasure coding to 4 kilobyte sized chunks of the file before they are hashed into the Merkle tree.

This allows the network to retrieve data, even when a portion of the chunks are inaccessible. Finally, Swarm includes a pinning function which allows nodes to save all chunks locally and prevent the chunks from being removed. Nodes track the relative bandwidth consumption with peers they connect with, creating a debts and credits balancing mechanism between any two nodes at any given point in time.

When node A requests data from node B, and node B responds, then node B has a credit surplus, while node A has debt liabilities. This can continue until a certain threshold is reached, after which node B will not accept further requests until node A has repaid liabilities. Figure 3: Swarm Accounting Protocol.

Source: Swarm whitepaper.

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